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Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science.〔Montesquieu (1689–1755) is a rival for this role. 〕 He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his most renowned work ''The Prince'' (''Il Principe'') in 1513. "Machiavellianism" is a widely-used negative term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described most famously in ''The Prince.'' Machiavelli described immoral behavior, such as dishonesty and killing innocents, as being normal and effective in politics. He even seemed to endorse it in some situations. The book itself gained notoriety when some readers claimed that the author was teaching evil, and providing "evil recommendations to tyrants to help them maintain their power."〔Giovanni Giorgini, "Five Hundred Years of Italian Scholarship on Machiavelli's Prince," ''Review of Politics'' (2013) 75#4 pp 625-640〕 The term "Machiavellian" is often associated with political deceit, deviousness, and ''realpolitik''. On the other hand, many commentators, such as Baruch Spinoza, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot, have argued that Machiavelli was actually a Republican, even when writing ''The Prince'', and his writings were an inspiration to Enlightenment proponents of modern democratic political philosophy.〔B. Spinoza, ''Tractatus theologico politicua'', V, 7〕〔D. Diderot, ''Machivellianism'', in ''Encyclopedie''〕〔J.-J. Rousseau, ''Contratto sociale'', III, 6〕 == Life == Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the third child and first son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli. The Machiavelli family is believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice, one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months and who formed the government, or Signoria; however, he was never a full citizen of Florence, due to the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time, even under the republican regime. Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini in 1502. Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era in which popes waged acquisitive wars against Italian city-states, and people and cities often fell from power as France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Switzerland battled for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri (mercenary leaders), who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments.〔Maurizio Viroli, ''Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli'' (2000), ch 1〕 Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin. It is thought that he did not learn Greek even though Florence was at the time one of the centers of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494 Florence restored the republic—expelling the Medici family, who had ruled Florence for some sixty years. Shortly after the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was appointed to an office of the second chancery, a medieval writing office which put Machiavelli in charge of the production of official Florentine government documents. Shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the ''Dieci di Libertà e Pace.'' In the first decade of the sixteenth century, he carried out several diplomatic missions: most notably to the Papacy in Rome, in the Italian states. Moreover, from 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of Cesare Borgia (1475–1507) and his father, Pope Alexander VI, who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of central Italy under their possession. The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a partial justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as ''The Prince''. Between 1503 and 1506 Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia. He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust he explained in his official reports and then later in his theoretical works as due to their unpatriotic and uninvested nature in war, making their allegiance fickle and often too unreliable when most needed), and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy which proved to be successful many times. Under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509. However, Machiavelli's success did not last. In August 1512 the Medici, backed by Pope Julius II used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato, although many historians have argued that this was due to Piero Soderini's unwillingness to compromise with the Medici who were holding Prato under siege. In the wake of the siege, Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and left in exile. This experience would, like Machiavelli's time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, heavily influence his political writings. After the Medici victory, the Florentine city-state and republic were dissolved, and Machiavelli was deprived of office in 1512. In 1513 the Medici accused him of conspiracy against them and had him imprisoned. Despite having been subjected to torture ("with the rope", where the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists, from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight, thus dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released after three weeks. Machiavelli then retired to his estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina (near San Casciano in Val di Pesa) and devoted himself to study and the writing of the political treatises that earned his place in the intellectual development of political philosophy and political conduct.〔Donna, Daniel, in the introduction to the Bantam Classic edition of ''The Prince'' (1966)〕 Despairing of the opportunity to remain directly involved in political matters, after a time Machiavelli began to participate in intellectual groups in Florence and wrote several plays that (unlike his works on political theory) were both popular and widely known in his lifetime. Still, politics remained his main passion and, to satisfy this interest, he maintained a well-known correspondence with more politically connected friends, attempting to become involved once again in political life.〔Machiavelli, Niccolò (1996), Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence, Northern Illinois University Press. Translated and edited by James B. Atkinson and David Sices.〕 In a letter to Francesco Vettori, he described his exile: When evening comes, I go back home, and go to my study. On the threshold, I take off my work clothes, covered in mud and filth, and I put on the clothes an ambassador would wear. Decently dressed, I enter the ancient courts of rulers who have long since died. There, I am warmly welcomed, and I feed on the only food I find nourishing and was born to savor. I am not ashamed to talk to them and ask them to explain their actions and they, out of kindness, answer me. Four hours go by without my feeling any anxiety. I forget every worry. I am no longer afraid of poverty or frightened of death. I live entirely through them.〔Joshua Kaplan, "Political Theory: The Classic Texts and their Continuing Relevance," ''The Modern Scholar'' (14 lectures in the series; lecture #7 / disc 4), 2005〕 Machiavelli died in 1527 at the age of 58 after receiving his last rites.〔"Even such men as Malatesta and Machiavelli, after spending their lives in estrangement from the Church, sought on their death-beds her assistance and consolations. Both made good confessions and received the Holy Viaticum." - Ludwig von Pastor, ''History of the Popes'', Vol. 5, p. 137, ()〕 He was buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. An epitaph honoring him is inscribed on his monument. The Latin legend reads: TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM ("so great a name (has) no adequate praise" or "no eulogy (would be appropriate to) such a great name"). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Niccolò Machiavelli」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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